|
Written by Xiuhcoatl
|
|
Nov 25, 2005 at 02:11 AM |
THE MAPUCHE NATION
R. Marhiquewun
BACKGROUND
The Mapuche are the "people of the land", Mapu means land and che means
people. They are also known as Araucanos, a name given to them by the
Spanish colonialists. Before the "huincas" (Spanish) arrived in 1541,
the Mapuche who numbered one and half to two million were the original
inhabitants of the Southern Cone of the continent in a region which
today covers half of Chile and half of Argentina. The Mapuche nation
comprised of both sedentary and nomadic communities: hunters and
gatherers, shepherds, farmers and fishermen. They lived in small family
groups known as lof, which were under the authority of a Lonko (chief).
The Mapuche territory had its border with the Inca Empire south of the
Maule river. This border was established after a long war and the
failure of the Inca to conquer the Mapuche nation by the use of force.
The Mapuche territory is divided into four main regions or wallmapu.
These are known as: Puelmapu (land of the east), Pikunmapu (land of the
north), Lafquenmapu (land of the Pacific coastal region in the west)
and Huillimapu (land of the south). Therefore the Mapuche of those
regions are identified accordingly, such as Puelche, Pikunche,
Lafquenche, Huilliche. There are, however, other areas in which the
Mapuche are known by their association with a particular eco-system or
natural environment, for example Pewenche (people of the monkey puzzle
tree) region, Waidefche (people from the cordillera), Ranquilche
(people from the apple tree region), etc. Before the colonialists
arrived the Mapuche people had and still have a distintive cultural
identity, social organisation, language, religion and way of life.
Inhabiting such a vast area the Mapuche had developed regional cultural
diversity without a centralized power, but they nevertheless had a
strong sense of unity. Their clear sense of nationhood and an
unquestionable desire to maintain their self-determination and freedom,
forced them into armed resistance, firstly against the Inca Empire and
then for over 350 years against the Spanish, Chileans and Argentinians.
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
The traditional Mapuche organisation has its origin in the extended
family structure, known as Lof. It is shaped by their socio-cultural,
political and ideological concepts, complemented by their spirituality
and religious beliefs, as well as taking into account the harmonious
relationship between man, land and nature.
The community’s daily way of life was regulated in a code of practice
known as Ad-Mapu. It was transmitted by the Ulmen (wise) who, as well
as giving advice, also acted as negotiators in the prevention and
resolution of internal disputes, or the formation of alliances with
other Butalmapu in times of war. Ulmen in general were chosen to ensure
that the communal law was respected, and acceptable standards of
behaviour of its members were maintained. To this day, community Elders
are still an important authority within communities. On the other hand
the Lonko or chief is the highest authority of the community. In times
of war the Mapuches organized themselves in Ayllarehue (8 rehue/lonko)
and in addition a Council of Lonkos comprised of representatives of all
regions (Butalmapu) used to choose a Toqui who was responsible and in
charge of the army.
RELIGIOUS ORGANISATION
The Mapuche are a deeply spiritual and religious society, their belief
system maintained that the world was created by a celestial family, who
were the creators of all beings as well as holding the power of nature.
The religious organisation, which is formed by the Machi or spiritual
leaders still plays an important role in the decision making processes
regarding the internal affairs of each community. There are various
ranks of Machi some of whom in addition to their spirituality, also
have a profound knowledge of traditional medicine and psycho-therapy,
most of these being women.
The Nguillatun is the most solemn civil and military religious ceremony
in the Mapuche society. This sacred ceremony is conducted in an area
specially allocated by the community known as Nguillantue. The
ceremony, depending on the region may last two or three days and takes
place in each region every two or three years. There, at the altar or
Rehue in the open air, the Mapuche of all ages give thanks to
Nguinechen, the Mapuche God. The ceremony is guided throughout by the
Ngenpin, the chief of the ceremony, The Machi and the Lonko also play
an important role in the preparation and conducting of the event.
THE MAPUCHE LANGUAGE
The language of the Mapuche is called Mapu-dugun, which means the
language of the land, an oral language passed from one generation to
the next. According to our ancestral beliefs the language of the
Mapuche emerges from listening to the land, and all earthly elements,
sounds and movements, including the animals, birds, trees, wind, rain,
and even the mountain springs. It is this deep rooted communicative
relationship developed between the Mapuche and the land which has
brought the language into being.
In Chile as in Argentina the official language is Spanish and therefore
Mapu-dugun is dying out. However, today in Chile there are a number of
Mapuche organisations that are working towards the creation of a
Mapuche alphabet in order to preserve and sustain the oral tradition.
THE LONG MAPUCHE WAR AGAINST COLONIAL AGGRESSION
In 1536, when the Spanish first set foot on Mapuche territory, they
were welcomed by the Mapuche. Even when they came again in1541 with the
intention of settling in our land they were well received. Only, when
the real nature of their enterprise was disclosed did the Mapuche
oppose them a fierce resistance which lasted for over 350 year. This
war became known as "la guerra de Arauco" or "the Araucanian War".
The Spanish arrived from Cuzco, Peru, where they had their Viceroyalty,
their main headquarters in South America. Pedro de Valdivia, the
Captain General of the "Conquest" of Chile, set out from Peru to
conquer the Mapuche land, and in February 1541 founded Santiago
(Chile’s capital). The plans and objectives of the Spanish were
fundamentally economic as well as ensuring that the geographical
expansion of their colony was maintained. Their pretence of coexistence
with their hosted nation, was soon to be exposed, when they invaded
Mapuche land and began to enslave them, rape their women, pillage their
communities and inflict horrendous torture and mutilation on those who
resisted or tried to escape from the inhuman treatment inflicted in the
mines or encomiendas. The first military action by the Mapuche took
place in September 1541 when Toki Michimalongo who was in charge of the
north part of the Mapuche territory liberated the Mapuche prisioners
and in the process destroyed Santiago. The second encounter with the
Mapuche army took place in the Quilicura locality in March 1546 when
the Spaniards once against lost the battle, although some of their
soldiers managed to escape back to Santiago.
In January 1550, the so called Conquistador of Chile, Pedro de Valdivia
prepared a new military incursion deep into Mapuche land, during which
his army built several military settlements and fortresses throughout
the territory, at Tucapel, Puren, Angol, Imperial, Villarrica,
Valdivia, and Osorno. By the end of 1553, however, much of this Spanish
enclave had been destroyed and on New Year’s Day 1554, Valdivia and his
troops were totally defeated by the Mapuche forces under the command of
Toki Leftraru. Valdivia was taken prisoner, charged and sentenced
according to Mapuche law. He was executed the next day by a blow on the
head. The Mapuche forces, under the command of Toki Leftraru, then
advanced north, towards Santiago, destroying one by one what remained
of the Spanish enclave. In so doing the Spanish were expelled from
Mapuche territory.
During the first century of the "Araucanian war" the Spanish tried
stubbornly to conquer the Mapuche territory; unable to accept defeat
from people they considered "inferior and uncivilised". Time and again
they constructed new garrisons South of the Bio-Bio river into Mapuche
territory, and the Mapuche responded by dispelling them from their
land. In the process both the Spanish and Mapuche forces suffered
considerable losses. The Mapuche lost powerful Toki (high chiefs);
Leftraru was killed and Calfulican was taken prisoner, the Spanish,
using their barbaric methods of execution, impaled him in the centre of
the square in Cañete village. In 1598 another famous Toki called
Pelantaru confronted the Governor Oñez de Loyola in Curralaba and
defeated him in battle, leaving the governor dead. Pelentaru then
proceeded to destroy all the latest Spanish enclave situated south of
the Bio-Bio river.
During the war the Mapuche forces employed diverse military strategies
and tactics which constantly surprised the invaders. The intelligence,
creativity and determination of the Mapuche made it possible to defeat
the, then, most powerful nation on earth. The Araucanian war has been
widely documented by Spanish historians who recognize that the Spanish
loss in soldiers and resources in this war was greater than losses
through all other conquests throughout the Americas combined.
One hundred years after their arrival, on the 6th of January 1641 the
Spanish were forced to sign a treaty in Quillin acknowledging their
failure to defeat the Mapuche peope. With this treaty Spain recognised
the independence of the Mapuche nation, an admission of the military
capability as well as the determination of the Mapuche people not to
accept defeat. It was agreed that the Bio-Bio river was the border and
that the Spanish would dismantle the few remaining fortresses and
retreat to the North of the river. The Mapuche on the other hand would
return the Spanish prisoners of war and allow missionaries to continue
with their work. Both sides agreed not to violate the settled borders.
The Spanish however, did not stand by their obligations for long. They
recognised the border of the Mapuche territory, but from time to time
organized military incursions, to pilllage communities, kidnapping
people who were sold as slaves to work in mines situated in the North
of the country. Their actions maintained a permanent state of war,
where the Spanish could not reconcile their demand for slaves and their
agreement to keep the peace. In 1542 the Spanish formally declared
Indian slavery illegal everywhere in the Americas, except in those
regions where indigenous nations resisted and did not accept Spanish
jurisdiction. However, a century after this declaration, slavery was
still a fact of life everywhere in the Americas. The constant slave
raiding in the Mapuche territory forced the Mapuche to retaliate and in
1655, once again the Mapuche forces swept through the Spanish
resistance and destroyed the Spanish positions right up to the Maule
river, originally the old border with the Inca Empire. The Spanish
defeated and demoralised, their feelings of ‘human superiority’
chastised, realised that all they had constructed in over a century of
hard work had been swept away. Furthermore, resistance to the Spanish
grew overtime, as many indigenous peoples from the north of the
continent, attracted by the strength of the Mapuche sought refuge in
Mapuche land. The Mapuche welcomed these refugee families and gave them
protection.
After the Treaty of Quillin, the Spanish promoted a number of
parliaments in order to pacify the Mapuche people, as the "Araucanian
War" became a military and economic burden to Spain, and therefore
difficult to ignore. According to their own sources the Spanish lost,
during the period 1603 to 1674, 42.000 Spanish soldiers, a similar
number of indians auxiliares (*) and 37 million Pesos. As far as the
Mapuche were concerned treaties became increasingly irrelevant as they
were constantly violated by the Spanish. Nevertheless there were a
number of well known parliaments, one of which took place in Negrete,
in February 1726, and another in Lonquillmo January 1784 under Colonel
Ambrosio O’Higgins. During this Parliament once again the border treaty
of Quillin was ratified and an agreement made to release prisoners. It
was also agreed that each side would appoint a permanent ambassador and
a mutual security pact was also agreed. The last Parliament took place
in Negrete in 1803 just before Chilean independence, under the
administration of the governor Luis Muñoz Guzman.
These parliaments were called for and organized by the Spanish Crown
usually when they suffered major losses in battle. They were designed
to neutralize the Mapuche counter-offensive strategy. For the Spanish
Governor in the colony such parliaments were not desirable events to
look forward to. They felt humiliated having to talk to their
adversaries, especially since they knew their word was not being taken
seriously by the Mapuche, who were dubious of their intentions and
sceptical of Spanish honesty. These Parliaments were celebrated with
grand solemnity; and serving as a symbol of their commitment to peace,
the Mapuche obliged the Spanish to bury their weapons and on top of
them a Canelo tree (Mapuche medicinal tree) was planted. In addition
the Spanish had to invest a great deal of money, present gifts to the
Mapuche, give parties and military parades. Both sides made speeches,
the Mapuches who were great orators often spoke for hours during which
time the word "huinca" (referring to the Spanish) was discreetly but
effectively used. The Mapuche word "huinca" literally means thief.
The cost to the Spanish army during the Araucanian War was around
50.000 soldiers and an estimated 60.000 "indios auxiliares". These
indians auxiliares were enlisted (sometimes by force) from others
indigenous nations by the Spanish, who were driven ahead of their
armies, acting as a sort of battering ram against the enemy. Many
Spanish historians referred to Mapuche soil as the Spanish soldiers
cemetery of The Americas.
The Mapuche losses are unknown but in addition to the losses in the
battlefield they also suffered kidnapping and the Spanish brought with
them diseases such as yellow fever, measles and smallpox against which
the Mapuche had no defence. The effect of these diseases caused major
epidemics throughout the Mapuche land, and by the beginning of the
1560’s had caused the death of hundreds of thousands of Mapuche people.
Treaties with the Argentinean……..
THE RECOGNITION OF THE MAPUCHE: NATION INDEPENDENCE
The Mapuche remained an independent nation long before and after the
period of the Spanish conquest of the American continent, who were
expelled during Latin America’s independence movement in the early
Nineteenth century. In fact the Mapuche have always been an independent
nation, it has never formed part of any colonial power or states. The
Mapuche has its own common descent, history, social organisation, a
self sufficient economy, cultural identity, its own language, and a set
of unique cultural and spiritual values. The Mapuche originate and
remain in a particular region of the Americas, which they regard as
their ancestral territory. The Mapuche has its own sense of identity
and a proud feeling of nationhood.
The Mapuche independence was further recognised, when the Spanish in
1641, a century after their arrival, signed the Treaty of Quillin which
formally defined their frontier with the Mapuche nation.
INDEPENDENCE OF CHILE AND ARGENTINA FROM SPAIN
....................................
In 1810 a new generation of Spanish decendents, creole and
anti-royalists from Chile and Argentina declared their independence
from Spain, followed by a war against Spain which last almost 10 years.
During that time the Mapuche society evolve and it was a diferent one
of that the Spanish found 269 years early. before of confrontantion
with the Spanish in which most of the time were in constant war, the
Mapuche society evolve, they took a number of people adopt During this
period the Mapuche nation was ...........
...................
With the final defeat of the Spanish by the newly formed states, the
original treaties of 1641 between the Spanish Crown and the Mapuche
nation were abrogated and by decree they declared the Mapuche territory
as theirs. At the same time these new Republics, instigated new
treaties leading to the gradual takeover of the Mapuche territory.
Under the same pretext of that of the Spanish of "promoting
civilization and Christianity" the Mapuche people suffere territorial
conquests, military aggression, persecution, and the genocide of entire
communities.
At the end of the 19th century Chilean and Argentinian armies seized
the Mapuche territory, a dispossession recorded in Chilean history as
the "Pacification of Araucania", and in Argentina as the "Campaign of
the Desert".
......................................
It is known to most Mapuche people as ‘La Ultima Matanza’ - The Last Massacre.
..............................................
Since the defiet of the Mapuche forces in Patagonia, in 1885,
legislation brought about by successive governments whether democratic
or dictatorship, are indistinguishable in its objective, to undermine
the Mapuche nation. The huincas (mestizo) using their legislation,
reserve the right to modify it, if it prevented them from confiscating
or appropriating Mapuche territory. Their laws tend to favour them and
also envelope the "complicity of the "authorities" which, after one
hundred years continues as standard practice, resulting in the Mapuche
people constituting the most deprived sectors of the Chilean and
Argentinean society today. The gradual loss of their cultural identity,
insufficient land and resources, a lack of technical and financial
help, and widespread poverty.
THE KINGDOM OF ARAUCANIA AND PATAGONIA
In 1858 Orelie Antoine de Tounens (a French lawyer) came to Chile,
attracted by the historic, brave and heroic resistance of the Mapuche
people against attempts by the Kingdom of Spain to colonise them over a
period of nearly 300 years. He travelled to the Mapuche territory to
get to know, as he put it, ‘this noble race of heroes’, and became
fascinated by the history, hospitality and good nature of her people.
He was soon integrated into their society, learning Mapu-dugun (the
Mapuche language), wearing the poncho and even let his hair grow in the
Mapuche style. Welcomed and entertained by the Lonko (local chief) and
Toki (highest chief), he gained the confidence, respect and affection
of the highest authorities of the Mapuche nation.
This extraordinary event took place in a time when the Chilean and
Argentinean republics were plotting the complete occupation of the
Mapuche territory. The Chilean and Argentinian Republics, ever since
their independence from Spain in 1810, had claimed the Mapuche
territory as their own; and to "legally" justify this used the means of
their own judicial systems. In other words, authorities of foreign
powers made decrees over yet unconquered land and tried by means of
communiques, to extend the jurisdiction of their domestic laws to
people and territories over which they had no right. During the next 50
years these new republics began to consolidate their territory and
prepare to take control of the Mapuche territory by force. Military
activities on the frontier, either side of the Andes were intensified.
The Mapuche nation and its Toki could see that a new colonisers’
invasion was imminent. New weapons had been introduced into the
republics’ army increasing its strength relative to the Mapuche forces.
Faced with this reality, the Mapuche leaders felt that the time had
come to employ a new tactic in the promotion and legitimisation of
their nation. On the brink of the demise of the Mapuche nation’s
independence, the kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia was created. This
new governing system presented them with a fresh opportunity to seek
support, alliances and international recognition.
The basis of a Kingdom was established after prolonged deliberation and
consultation throughout the Mapuche territory. This process culminated
on the 17th November 1860, with the approval of a constitution which
gave origin to the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia. Part of the
document stated:
"Considering that Araucania is not dependent on any other state, it
finds itself divided by tribes and that a central government is
required…. We decree the following":
Article 1: A constitutional and dynastic monarchy has been founded in
Araucania; Orelie Antoine de Tounens is appointed King: the
Constitution also contemplates the formation of: Council of the
Kingdom, ministers, a legislative body nominated by universal suffrage,
a Council of the State, responsible for putting together bills, etc.
According to the Mapuche way of life and Ad-Mapu it also guarantees
with respect to human and civil rights, the freedom and equality of
individuals before the law. The Toki Quilapan was appointed Minister of
War; Montril, Minister of Foreign Affairs; Quilahueque, Minister of the
Interior; Calfouchan of Justice, Marihual of Agriculture.
The Chilean and Argentinian governments organised a well orchestrated
propaganda and diplomatic campaign to discredit the formation of the
Kingdom. In addition the Chilean security forces infiltrated it and
offered 250 Piastras reward to whoever could capture the King dead or
alive.
King Orelie Antoine was taken prisoner by Cornelio Saavedra with the
help of his spy Rosales who was working as one of the servants of the
King, Rosales was Second Corporal of the Civil Squadron of Nacimiento
and one of his roles was to keep his superiors informed of Orelie’s
movements in his territory. On the 5th January 1862, taking advantage
of the King’s visit to an area close to the border, a military platoon
seized him. The platoon had entered Mapuche territory disguised as
merchants (priests and traders were allowed into Mapuche land). He was
imprisoned in Los Angeles where he was confined to a damp, dark cell,
deprived of food and medical care. His testimony reveals that he
developed serious illnesses which almost took his life. However, King
Orelie summoned enough strength in order to act as his own advocate,
and proceeded to discard one by one the charges against him. The
government could find no legal charges to hold against him: to declare
him insane was their only solution. (Insanity was the version that has
been continually portrayed by the official historians, anthropologists,
etc.). It was argued that it could not be normal for a ‘white’ person
to claim rights for the ‘savages’. This constituted an absolute
‘anomaly’ and ‘lunacy’. He was sent to the lunatic asylum in Santiago,
Chile, and on the 16th of October 1862, was released and expelled from
the country, forbidden to re-enter either to Chile or Argentina.
However, he returned three times, where he was always welcomed by the
Mapuche.
King Orelie Antoine was without doubt an important ally and true friend
of the Mapuche people in the most crucial moment of their existence as
an independent nation, on the eve of the most vile and inhuman genocide
known in the history of the Americas. An atrocity which the creoles,
like their ancestors the Spanish, committed in the name of
‘civilization’ and ‘progress’.
The formation of the Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia in 1860 is a
clear and irrefutable historic statement that then, from the Bio-Bio
river to the South was independent territory under the political
jurisdiction of the Mapuche people.
The legitimate successor today is Prince Philippe I. He lives in Paris,
France, and hold the title of His Royal Highness to the Crown of
Araucania and Patagonia, in exile.
CHILE AND ARGENTINA - THE NEW COLONIAL POWERS
In 1885, in Patagonia, the Mapuche nation was finally defeated by both
armies, and many people were either killed or forced from their homes
to live impoverished lives in small rural communities and in the
cities. During this campaign many children were taken from their
families and given to white people to be trained as servants.
...................
COLONIALS
TITULO DE MERCED
................................................
In Chile the Mapuche communities are concentrated in the provinces of
Arauco, Bio-Bio, Malleco, Cautin, Valdivia, Osorno, Llanquihue and
Chiloe, though many have migrated to the cities. In Argentina, the
Mapuche live mainly in the Provinces of Neuquen, Rio Negro, Buenos
Aires and Santa Cruz.
According to the last census (1992), 44.1% of the total Mapuche population live in the capital of Chile Santiago.
Their main source of income comes from agriculture, predominantly grain and cattle.
The official Mapuche history written is yet to be written by the
Mapuche themselves and this account is an small contribution. This
short version of the Mapuche history has been compile and it will be
extended in a booklet to be printed form in the near future.
|
|
History 
